Effects of Access to Parks

Effects of Access to Parks The Greater Wilshire/Hancock Park/Koreatown area is densely populated, so there are few parks within proximity to childrens homes- most of who live in apartment buildings. The largest green area in this neighborhood is for upper class adults only and photos of the nearest parks depict adults utilizing all the amenities. Accessibility to parks as well as the ramifications for the lack of availability has been researched in numerous scopes. How does a city go about allocating new parks and what is the process to place one in a particular location- especially in densely populated areas with little or no vacant lots? There are numerous studies that explain the correlation between well-being and green spaces. Inequality in the dispersal of funding for parks and recreation between lower and middle class neighborhoods can hinder this relationship and in turn contribute to discriminatory and undercurrents of superiority due to social status and wealth (Byrne, 2009). Consequently, children su ffer as obesity rates and lack of exposure to nature are at an all-time high (Franzini et al., 2009, Rigolon et al., 2014). Lorne Platt conducted a case study in 2012 that examined the way children use the space in their neighborhoods. Children aged 10-12 shared their experiences accessing parks and other public spaces within their community. Platt used this method to observe the insight of a certain group of people living in an urban area. His subjects did not care whether a park was too far, but rather focused on whether it felt safe to play in a park or if the existence of alternate play area was of greater significance. His study determined that a lot of these kids looked for vacant lots, sidewalks and alleys which were abundant as a substitute to the traditional park (Platt, 2012). Wolch, Wilson, and Fehrenbach found that areas with predominantly Latino, Black and Asian-Pacific populations have less access to parks than areas with populations that have a white majority (2013). The areas dominated by people of color are areas that mostly have apartment buildings where children and adults alike do not have access to a space where people can play and/or relax outside. Moreover, they do not have the money to go to a gym, or have the luxury to go play golf at the Wilshire Country Club for example or utilize their other amenities such as the swimming pool or tennis courts. Their study indicates that Los Angeles must think of innovative methods of using spaces to address the unequal accessibility to parks. These spaces are not just limited to vacant lots and alleys, but also include spaces owned by utility companies, streets that take up more space than needed and even riverbeds that are no longer utilized. Pascale Joassart-Marcelli states that physical activity is not just correlated to access to parks, but also the quality and the number of parks (2009). Funds from local, state, as well as non-profit entities unequally favor spending on middle-class neighborhoods over low-income areas that have predominantly minority populations. The disproportion in the distribution of resources for parks and recreation has been a consequence of transfer of federal funds, increased delivery of services on a local level with limited allocation of funds between local, state and federal programs. This ultimately affects the health of certain populations resulting in increased risk of weight gain, heart problems, and diabetes. Moreover, Jason Byrne found that the imbalance in the dispersal of funds for parks and recreation contributes to the conception of discriminatory and elitist undercurrents (2009). Minorities felt that if they went to a park frequented by white people, their presence might be frowne d upon or they may experience some sort of racist encounter. They were afraid of being picked on for being lively, dissimilar, or simply for being themselves. Minorities also have preconceptions regarding other ethnic groups based on distrust and cynicism, deterring them from using certain parks. Byrne says that park managers need to attempt to make parks more culturally and ethnically diverse by including signage in different languages and adding people of different backgrounds on their websites. Additionally, Alessandro Rigolon and Travis L. Flohr studied how exposure to nature promotes both not only physical, but mental well-being (2014). Unfortunately, childrens contact with nature has been gradually declining over the past 20-30 years. They also determined that white, middle-class children have greater contact with nature than lower-income minorities. They suggested creating green spaces in areas that would not normally be taken into consideration in lower-income areas, and forming community gardens for example. The gardens would be maintained by the local residents, while non-profit organizations, universities and community members could help out with raising money to not only to build new spaces, but also build initiatives that would raise the childrens sense of security and well-being. Cortisol, also known as the stress hormone, impacts, controls, and moderates many of the changes in the body in response to stress such as blood sugar levels, blood pressure, metabolic rate, and the immune system. Catharine Ward Thompson, Jenny Roe, Peter Aspinall, Richard Mitchell, Angela Clow, and David Miller studied whether cortisol found in saliva can specify levels of stress related with different levels of contact to green spaces (2011). They concluded that weighing cortisol levels in saliva suggests great potential for exploring links between welfare and green space and debate how this procedure can be established to confirm and encompass findings in underprivileged city areas to show why the establishment of green spaces within proximity to homes could improve health. The rate of obesity has risen dramatically for adults as well as children (Franzini et al., 2009). 632 parents of 5th graders were surveyed and asked to observe the patterns of growth and change in their communities. Their study determined that minority neighborhoods had similar accessibility to parks/green spaces. Although poorer neighborhoods that were predominantly populated with minority groups reported that their communities were easily accessible, they also reported that their neighborhoods were not very safe, not as comfortable, and not very enjoyable to spend outdoors. Also, the patterns of growth and change favor physical activity less than white communities. Disproportions in health arise as a result of income inequality and is quickly becoming a worldwide health epidemic (Jennings et al., 2014). Green spaces provide environmental amenities that are important to public health. This research discussed the associations between green spaces and some of the nations leading heal th issues. Heart disease, illnesses related to heat exposure, excessive weight gain and mental health are debated in terms of key demographic elements liable to change- ethnicity, origin, and salary. As our cities are becoming more densely populated and contaminated, green spaces not only promote physical and psychological well-being, but also provide services to a community of living organisms and their environment (Wolch et al., 2014). Although there has been an increased effort to create more green spaces in urban areas, the approaches have been self-contradictory. Other studies have shown that increasing the number of green spaces causes neighborhoods to gentrify, causing dislocation of the very people these green spaces were meant to help (Wolch et al., 2014, Rigolon et al., 2014). Therefore, the focus needs to shift to the support of long-term ecological balance and creating areas that encourage well-being, while taking into consideration what people need at home and at work by creating an equal, diverse, and democratic community. Feasable efforts of growth in urban areas often place an emphasis on consideration of factors that affect all features of well-being and welfare (Larson et al., 2015). As previously mentioned, research has indicated that public parks and green spaces offer a number of communal, bodily and mental benefits to urban populations. The effect of parks on an all-encompassing scope of welfare was studied based on personal feelings, tastes, and opinions. Well-being was calculated based on the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being 5 tool, which measures five interconnected foundations that studies have shown to have the greatest influence on a persons welfare: purpose, social, financial, community and physical. Lo and Jim (2009) argue that people expect different things of parks and green spaces depending on the community. Older public housing residents go to parks to look for common areas where they can make social connections and did not care too much about how the park looked. Older homeowners visited the parks most often, but were susceptible to the undesirable features of green spaces related to urban decay. People living in suburbs perceived parks as a way to spend time with the family and appreciate the beauty of nature. The newer public housing residents visited parks the least as a result of having less sense of community, and partial assimilation of people coming from other countries. References Platt, L. Parks Are Dangerous and the Sidewalk Is Closer: Childrens Use of Neighborhood Space in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 22:. Wolch, J., J. P. Wilson, and J. Fehrenbach. 2005. Parks and Park Funding in Los Angeles: An Equity-Mapping Analysis. Urban Geography 26:4-35. Joassart-Marcelli, P. 2010. Leveling the Playing Field? Urban Disparities in Funding for Local Parks and Recreation in the Los Angeles Region. Environment and Planning A 42:1174-1192. More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. a. Landscape and urban planning. When green is White: The cultural politics of race, nature. c. Geoforum. Abramenko, P., and K. S. Brown. 2008. Access to Parks for Youth as an Environmental Justice Issue Access Inequalities and Possible Solutions. New York, NY: Springer. Neighborhood characteristics favorable to outdoor physical activity: Disparities by socioeconomic and racial ethnic composition. b. Health place. R. Wolch, J., J. Byrne, and J. P. Newell. Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice:The challenge of making cities just green enough. Landscape and urban planning. Lincoln R Larson, Viniece Jennings, and Scott A Cloutier. 2016. Public Parks and Wellbeing in Urban Areas of the United States. PLoS One 11:e0153211. Jennings, V., and C. J. Gaither. 2015. Approaching environmental health disparities and green spaces: an ecosystem services perspective. International journal of environmental research and public health 12:1952-1968. Y.H. Lo, A., and C. Y. Jim. Differential community effects on perception and use of urban greenspaces.

International Water Conflict Essay

Water is one of the most precious commodities for human beings. To some, it is the very lifeblood of the world. From time immemorial, the availability of water has determined the rhythms of daily life in many regions. The critical importance of water to the survival of the human race can be seen in the earliest civilizations whose growth and sustenance were closely tied to its water distribution systems. Many authors have located the importance of water in different religious observances. In Hindu and Buddhist traditions, the rivers of the earth, including the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, originate from the mythical Mount Meru, the living place for the gods. In the Christian tradition, the waters originate from the Garden of Eden, and that divides the world into greatest streams: the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges. Islam also gives water its due importance. The holy book Koran describes that every living thing is made from water. As Caponera points out, it seems that in the Koran, the most precious creation after humankind is water. There is a water crisis today. Water is not only a ‘commodity’, it is synonymous with life. All life on earth is dependent on water. If water is life, its possession bestows power. Water has crucial economic value, and it is a subsistence resource. Also, water has an emotional and symbolic value for certain countries and communities. The scarcity of water is increasing worldwide and its quality is continuously deteriorating. Water shortages reduce food production, aggrandize poverty, amplify disease and force people to migrate. The scarcity of water also undermines the state’s capacity to govern. Nearly half of the world’s population lives in international river basins. Sharing of the international rivers can therefore be a serious object of contention between riparian nations. For the last few years, ‘water war’ has been a topic of widespread debate. However, wars over river water are likely only under a narrow set of circumstances, as there are also more examples of water cooperation than water conflict among countries. Nevertheless, the increasing scarcity of water raises doubt about the sustainability of these cooperative agreements over the international rivers. Water scarcity is particularly severe in Asia, Africa and the Middle East, owing to population growth, urbanization and industrialization. Whether the water crisis intensifies the dispute over the shared waters or whether it can be turned towards sustainable cooperative management of river resources, depends on many interacting processes. In this book (International conflict over water resources), after analyzing the existing sharing mechanisms of the major international river systems in these regions, argues that the real solution lies in a comprehensive approach to river basin management. The scarcity of water is increasing worldwide and the quality of the water is continually deteriorating. The growing global water stress poses a threat to the survival and prosperity of present and future generations. The gap between the needs of the growing population and the diminishing fresh water resources is widening every day. In the arid and tropical regions, where countries possess a very limited supply of water, it is not difficult to perceive the consequences. Water, a key necessity of life, can also cause friction between communities and countries, particularly in climatic zones where it is hard to come by. The over-exploitation of water resources might result in an acute shortage. From this perspective, it will be impossible for all the social actors to remain comfortable with the present or future prospects of the availability of the resource. These actors will work purposefully and consciously for their own interests. Increasing competition can potentially destroy the existing social arrangements for water distribution in the society. Newly organized actors with conflict behaviors might emerge in the future or the incompatibilities between existing actors might grow in societies with a weak administrative structure and laden with ethnic and social dichotomies. Scarce water resources can potentially trigger conflicts between the state and its internal groups. The development of water resources by the state by building dams, irrigation infrastructures, or industries in a particular region might be perceived by the local population as exploitation for the interest of others. Regional parties may be activated or environmental groups may be formed to challenge the actions of the state. If a particular group is involved in exploiting more than its ‘perceived’ share of water with the backing of the state, then this inter-group conflict may escalate into conflict between the exploited group and the state itself. As discussed earlier, the construction of large dams for the ‘efficient’ use of water resources has created tension between the state and a group of its own citizens in the past few years. The growing demand for irrigation and energy activates the state agencies to plan and build mega hydro-projects, which displace large population and inundate vast areas. In many places, the project affected population takes up of the struggle against the state. The list of mega dams that have witnessed this sort of protest is very long. The major ones include: Sanmenxia and Three Gorges in China; Madur Oya and Mahavali Project in Sri Lanka; Mangla, Nanela and Tarbela in Pakistan; Kaptai in Bangladesh; Arun in Nepal; Akasombo in Ghana; Kossou in Ivory Coast; Tana and Athi in Kenya; Itaparica and Tucurui in Brazil; Kainji and Niger Dams in Nigeria; Ataturk and Keban in Turkey; Lam Pao and Nam Pong in Thailand; Kedong Ombo and Batang Ai in Indonesia; Upper Pampanga in Philippines; Manantali in Mali; Savajina in Colombia; Brokopondo in Suriname; Caracol and Netzahualcoyotl in Mexico; and Nam Ngum in Laos. India, currently in the forefront of dam construction, deserves a separate list of its own. The Indian hydro-projects that have recently led to protest movements by the displaced people are: Pong Dam, Subarnarekha Project, Nagarjunsagar Project, Srisailam Project, Lower Manair Dam, Upper Krishna Projects, Tehri Dam, Narmada Projects and Ukai Reservoir Project. Sometimes disagreement over the development and sharing of water resources may begin with competing groups inside a state, but the state’s perceived favour of a particular group brings the state as a party to the conflict. Similarly, if the water source exploitation is perceived as the state’s intentional act on a particular region or people, a group identity may form, leading to conflict with the state. The construction of dams for hydropower generations in the northern part of Sweden to provide energy to the industries and factories in the South has become an area of disagreement between the Sami people of the North and the Swedish state. The Samis, who live in the forests in the Arctic Circle, accuse the state of favoring city dwellers at the cost of their livelihood and welfare. Even though this dispute has not transformed into a violent separatist movement, the reactions to similar issues in South Asia have been quite different. Disagreement over the sharing of river water from the Indus river system has been one of the major causes of violent secessionist movement in the Punjab province of India in the 1980s and 1990s. This Sikh-dominated province has been traditionally provided with a water supply from the Beas, Sutlej and Ravi Rivers. The demands of the downstream provinces of Rajasthan and Haryana persuaded the Indian government to construct canals and divert 60 per cent of Punjab’s water and energy to those Hindu-majority regions. This became one of the major motivations for the Sikh Party (Akali Dal) to ask for autonomy in the 1970s, which subsequently transformed into an extreme violent secessionist movement in the 1980s and 1990s. On the other side of the border, the dispute over the sharing of the same Indus river system water has also played a critical role in a major separatist movement in Pakistan. The Pakistani part of Punjab, which is economically and politically the most powerful province in the country, takes advantage of its upstream location and consumes most of the waters of the Indus river system through the help of barrages and dams, ignoring the demand of the downstream Sind province. The perceived close tie of the federal government with the Punjab province has escalated this conflict between the Sind province and the Pakistani government. The link between fresh water resources and international conflicts can be investigated at least in two different dimensions. First, in an interstate conflict, the deliberate targeting of water storage facilities may be directly responsible for inducing water scarcity or reducing the water quality of the opponent. Thus, water scarcity becomes part of a military strategy and military behavior. The British Royal Air Force damaged a few German dams in the bombing runs of 1943. Dams and dykes were destroyed during the Korean and Vietnam wars by the US bombing. Iran claimed to have hit a hydroelectric station in Iraq in July 1981, as part of the Iran-Iraq War. Dams, water storage and conveyance systems were targeted by the warring sides during the 1991 Gulf War. Allied forces even had thought of a plan to shut off the flow of water to Iraq by using the Ataturk Dam in Turkey. Armies in Yemen (in the 1994 war) and former Yugoslavia (1991-95) used the water storage facilities as targets to create problems for their adversaries. In January 1993, the Serbian militia seriously damaged the Peruca Dam in Croatia. There are cases where in fact a human population is held hostage to political and military leaders. Manipulation with such basic human supplies in times of war should be an urgent issue for international humanitarian law, and it certainly would be unacceptable under conditions of peace. However, the aim here is to concentrate on a second dimension of the relationship: the likelihood of changes in fresh water resource supply to cause or contribute to the emergence and/or escalation of conflicts among states. As discussed before, there has been a general decline in the quantity and quality of global fresh water resource. This leads us to consider scarcity of resources as a cause of conflict, in conflict theory language: an incompatibility between already existing parties. A common starting point in the analysis of many inter-state conflicts has been sought in the desire of the leaders of states to acquire territory. In the post-Second World War period, it has become unfashionable and immoral to conquer territories of others. Nevertheless this has happened repeatedly, for instance, in the Middle East, in South and Southeast Asia and lately in Europe. Huth characterizes territorial dispute as ‘one of the enduring features of international politics’. But, why do states fight for each other’s territory? As Toset, Gleditsch and Hegre explain, ‘territory can be a symbol of self-determination and national identity, but it can also be a proxy for tangible resources found on the territory’. Thus, access to water supply can be a motive of waging war. Under special circumstances it is a possibility that scarcity of fresh water resources may give rise to serious armed conflict. â€Å"Water is not transported across large distances, as is the case with oil or minerals, for instance. In the post-Second World War period, political actions are taking place more in order to satisfy the demands of the majorities of a country. † (Barrett, S. 1994, p. 24) This means that stronger nations might be more in need of natural resources on the territory of other states, to meet the growing needs and desires of the home population. In this way, ‘development’ might be seen to require the acquisition or exploitation of a larger share of jointly owned fresh water resource. The water on the surface of the earth is naturally organized within river basins. The river basins are the fundamental units of the fresh water world and the central feature of the ecology of the planet. Moreover, the river runoff is the most important source of available fresh water for human consumption. However, the rivers do not follow the political boundaries; nearly 260 rivers flow from one country to another. More than 40 per cent of the world’s population is directly dependent upon the fresh water from these international rivers and about two-thirds of these people live in developing countries. The use or misuse of water in the upstream countries affects its quantity and quality in the downstream countries. Downstream nations can affect the flow of water by building large-scale dams, with effects spilling over the borders. The International Water Management Institute in Colombo projects that in 2025, 3 billion people will be living in countries facing water stress. Water tables are increasingly falling in every continent. Many developing countries already face serious problems in meeting rapidly growing water demands. In order to meet such demands, further pressure is being placed on these ‘blue’ water resources, this over-exploitation resulting in acute shortages. Faced with such scarcity, water has increasingly become a source of social tension, bringing further competition and creating conflict which, together, have the potential to destroy the existing arrangements for water distribution. Even though such tensions are omnipresent, they tend to be more complex and difficult where international rivers, lakes and aquifers are concerned. The Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport (CNRET), now a defunct UN unit, brought out a Register of International Rivers in 1978. In that it listed 214 internationally shared rivers and lakes: 57 in Africa, 40 in Asia, 48 in Europe, 33 in North America and 36 in South America. The CNRET study has become dated because of significant changes in international geopolitical borders and names of countries and rivers in the last 25 years. The names of some countries and rivers have also changed in this period. The disintegration of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Ethiopia and Czechoslovakia has helped to increase the number of internationally shared rivers and lakes, and also the number of basin countries. For example, the Volga River is now international, and the Aral Sea is shared by at least four independent states. The re-unification of Germany and Yemen has made the Weser basin and the Teban basin national, contributing to a decrease in the number of international fresh water resources.

The Difference Between Revising and Editing

Just when you thought you were done writing your paper, you realize you still need to revise and edit. But what does that mean? The two are easy to confuse, but it is important for students to understand the difference.   Revision starts once you have a finished first draft of your paper. As you reread what you have written, you might notice a few places where the wording does not seem to flow quite as well as the rest of your work. You may decide to change a few words or add a sentence or two. Work through your arguments and make sure you have evidence to back them up. This is also the time to make sure you have established a thesis and have kept your focus on that throughout your paper.   Helpful Tips for Revision Give yourself time between writing the first draft and looking at it again for revision. A few hours can give you enough time to see it with fresh eyes that are more likely to spot trouble areas.Read your paper out loud. Sometimes speaking the words helps you get a better feel for the flow of a paper.Do not worry about the editing yet. Get the big ideas down and leave the detailing for later.Make sure your paper is organized in a logical way. Make your thesis statement and follow it up with arguments, quotes, and evidence in a way that makes your purpose clear. Editing your paper happens once you have a draft you are confident in as a whole. In this process, you are going to look for the details that may have slipped by you during the writing process. Spelling errors are often caught by spellcheck, but do not trust this tool  to catch everything. Word usage is also a common problem to catch in editing. Is there a word you use repetitively? Or did you write there when you meant their? Details like this seem small on an individual basis, but as they pile up they can distract your reader.   Things to Look for When Editing Look for spelling and capitalization errors that your editing software may have missed.Punctuation can make a big impact on how your paper flows. It creates a rhythm that can completely make or break a paper.Fact-check yourself. Did you cite your quotes and sources properly?Don’t be afraid to let a friend or colleague look at it with unfamiliar eyes. Sometimes you know your material so well that your brain automatically fills in blanks or sees what you meant, rather than what you said. Someone seeing the work for the first time might catch things you didn’t. Once you get into the habit of revising and editing, it becomes a little easier. You begin to recognize your own style and voice, and even learn the mistakes  you are most susceptible to. You may know the difference between there, their, and they’re but sometimes your fingers type faster than you can think and mistakes happen. After a few papers, the process will happen more naturally.

Context Of Silkwood V. Kerr Mcgee Nuclear Corp - 1316 Words

Introduction The 1983 film Silkwood, was inspired by Karen Silkwood of the monumental Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp. (81-2159) whistleblowing case. Silkwood, a union activist and whistleblower who worked at the Cimarron, Oklahoma Kerr-McGee Nuclear Fuel Processing facility from August, 1972 through November 1974. While the activist was investigating alleged wrongdoing, specifically plutonium contaminations on her body and throughout her house, she was killed in a suspicious auto accident. The case portrayed in film shows implications for modern whistleblowers, set a precedent and was essential in creating proper protections for whistleblowers. This paper will analyze the context of Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp. in modern day whistleblowing. Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee (1979) After the discovery of plutonium contamination on Karen Silkwood’s body and in the house she shared with co-workers, Silkwood died in a mysterious auto accident. Her father, who was her estate administrator, then filed suit against Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corporation for personal injury, mental distress, and property damage. The Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee case raised new questions about safety of workers in the nuclear industry. At the plant where Silkwood worked, employees worked with plutonium, which presents a high risk of serious health complications on the internal organs, tissues, and bone, especially if the element is inhaled or has any sort of internal contact. Silkwood was a laboratory analystShow MoreRelatedThe Union Organization And The Silkwood V. Kerr Mcgee Nuclear Corp Essay730 Words   |  3 PagesIntroduction The 1983 film Silkwood, was inspired by Karen Silkwood of the monumental Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp. (81-2159) whistleblowing case. Silkwood, a union activist and whistleblower, worked at the Cimarron Kerr-McGee Nuclear Fuel Processing facility in Oklahoma from August 1972 until November 1974. While the activist was investigating alleged corporate wrongdoing, specifically plutonium contaminations on her body and throughout her house, she was killed in a suspicious auto accident